The motor vehicle Manual by Tk Garret – PDF DOWNLOAD
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The motor vehicle Manual by Tk Garret – PDF DOWNLOAD
- Because of the continuing phenomenally rapid rate of progress in automotive technology, the revision for this the thirteenth edition of The Motor Vehicle has been on a major scale.
- No fewer than seven new chapters have been created. Of these, three are entirely new, while the remaining four comprise mainly new material that could not have been accommodated in existing chapters without making them too long and cumbersome.
- Of the entirely new chapters, one is on electric propulsion which, owing to pressure of legislation is now beginning to be taken seriously by the industry. It covers all the alternatives, from conventional lead-acid, and other, battery-powered vehicles to fuel cells and hybrid power units.
- A second covers both static and dynamic safety which, again because of pressure of legislation, is a field in which enormous progress has been made. This progress, which embraces almost all aspects of automotive design, has become possible largely because of the development of computer aided control. The third of these entirely new chapters deals with wheels and tyres.
- Over the past few decades, wheels and especially tyres have moved on, from being simply components that the designer chose largely on the basis of dimensional and commercial considerations, to becoming an integral part of the tuned suspension system. In the twelfth edition, only one chapter was devoted to the compression ignition engine.
- Now, owing to a major extent to the widespread application of diesel power to cars and light commercial vehicles, so much new equipment has been developed that it has now been expanded into three chapters.
- One of these comprises mainly the original subject matter, while the other two contain a considerable amount of new information on aspects such as common rail injection, recently developed distributor type pumps, and electronic control of injection. Two chapters now cover automatic, semi-automatic and continuously variable transmissions.
- These contain some of the original material but also information on the Porsche Tiptronic and Alfa Romeo Selespeed semi-automatic transmissions, the latter being basically the Magneti Marelli system. Chapter 39 has been added to contain much of the original material on anti-lock brakes together with new information on some of the latest developments for improving stability by means of computer aided control over both braking and traction.
- In the next chapter, a significant amount of space is devoted to both the basic considerations and the practice of electrically actuated powerassisted steering, which now looks set ultimately to render hydraulic power assistance systems redundant.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
The motor vehicle Manual by Tk Garret – PDF DOWNLOAD
Contents............................................................................... 4 Units and abbreviations................................................................ 8 Part 1 The Engine...................................................................... 10 1 General principles of heat engines............................................... 12 1.1 Heat and work.............................................................. 12 1.2 Work....................................................................... 13 1.3 Joule's equivalent......................................................... 13 1.4 Thermal efficiency......................................................... 13 1.5 Calorific value............................................................ 13 1.6 Power...................................................................... 14 1.7 General method of conversion of heat to work............................... 14 1.8 Practical form of working vessel........................................... 15 1.9 Rotary and reciprocating engines........................................... 15 1.10 Cylinder, piston, connecting rod and crankshaft........................... 16 1.11 Method of working......................................................... 17 1.12 The four-stroke cycle..................................................... 17 1.13 Heat balance.............................................................. 19 1.14 Factors governing the mean effective pressure............................. 21 1.15 Work per minute, power and horsepower..................................... 22 1.16 Piston speed and the RAC rating........................................... 23 1.17 Indicated and brake power................................................. 23 1.18 Mechanical efficiency..................................................... 24 1.19 Limiting factors.......................................................... 24 1.20 Characteristic speed power curves......................................... 25 1.21 Torque curve.............................................................. 27 1.22 Effect of supercharging on bmep and power................................. 28 1.23 Brake specific fuel consumption........................................... 30 1.24 Commercial rating......................................................... 32 1.25 Number and diameter of cylinders.......................................... 32 1.26 Power per litre........................................................... 32 1.27 Considerations of balance and uniformity of torque........................ 33 2 Engine balance................................................................... 34 2.1 Practical balancing........................................................ 35 2.2 Balance of reciprocating parts............................................. 36 2.3 Other V twin engines....................................................... 38 2.4 Horizontally-opposed twin.................................................. 38 2.5 Side-by-side twin with cranks at 180....................................... 38 2.6 Four-cylinder in-line engine............................................... 39 2.7 General method of balancing................................................ 39 2.8 Couples due to revolving masses............................................ 40 2.9 Balanced throws............................................................ 40 2.10 Torsional vibration....................................................... 40 2.11 Secondary forces and couples.............................................. 40 2.12 Effect of short connecting rod............................................ 41 2.13 Firing intervals.......................................................... 43 2.14 Compactness of engine..................................................... 43 2.15 Harmonic balancer......................................................... 43 2.16 Torsional disturbances.................................................... 44 2.17 In-line engines with three cylinders...................................... 45 2.18 Engines with five cylinders............................................... 46 2.19 Flexible mountings........................................................ 46 2.20 Modes of vibration, natural frequency, forcing frequency and resonance.... 47 2.21 Principal axes of inertia................................................. 48 2.22 Importance in the design of engine mountings.............................. 48 2.23 Hydraulically damped engine mountings..................................... 51 2.24 The Avon Hydramount....................................................... 54 3 Constructional details of the engine............................................. 56 3.1 General engine parts....................................................... 56 3.2 The piston................................................................. 56 3.3 Thermal considerations..................................................... 57 3.4 Design details............................................................. 57 3.5 Slipper and articulated pistons............................................ 61 3.6 AEconoglide piston......................................................... 61 3.7 Combustion chamber in piston............................................... 62 3.8 Piston rings............................................................... 64 3.9 Ring sections.............................................................. 64 3.10 Oil control rings......................................................... 65 3.11 Ring belt design.......................................................... 67 3.12 Cylinder bore wear and corrosion.......................................... 68 3.13 Gudgeon pin............................................................... 69 3.14 Connecting rods........................................................... 69 3.15 Typical connecting rods................................................... 70 3.16 Bearing bushes............................................................ 72 3.17 Bearing materials......................................................... 72 3.18 Thin-wall bearings........................................................ 72 3.19 Stronger materials........................................................ 74 3.20 Corrosion of bearings..................................................... 74 3.21 Aluminium-tin bearing alloys.............................................. 74 3.22 Aluminium-silicon and aluminium-tin-silicon alloys........................ 75 3.23 The crankshaft............................................................ 75 3.24 Crankshaft materials...................................................... 76 3.25 Built-up crankshafts...................................................... 79 3.26 Surface-hardening of shafts............................................... 80 3.27 Chill casting............................................................. 81 3.28 High-frequency induction hardening: flame hardening....................... 81 3.29 The poppet valve.......................................................... 82 3.30 The valve in practice..................................................... 83 3.31 Coated valves............................................................. 84 3.32 Corrosion and wear........................................................ 84 3.33 Valve rotation............................................................ 85 3.34 Seat inserts in cylinder heads............................................ 85 3.35 Layout of valves and form of combustion chamber........................... 86 3.36 Variable valve timing (VVT)............................................... 89 3.37 Advantages of VVT......................................................... 90 3.38 Early inlet valve closure (EIVC).......................................... 90 3.39 Problems associated with EIVC............................................. 91 3.40 Late inlet valve closure (LIVC)........................................... 91 3.41 Variable valve timing and the Atkinson cycle.............................. 92 3.42 Some simple VVT mechanisms................................................ 92 3.43 VPC, VLTC, VPLC and VET systems........................................... 92 3.44 The MechadyneÒMitchell system............................................. 95 3.45 Control of the Mechadyne–Mitchell system.................................. 98 3.46 Multi-valve heads......................................................... 99 3.47 Cylinder head Ò some overall design considerations........................ 101 3.48 An interesting cylinder head design....................................... 103 3.49 Cylinder block and crankcase arrangement.................................. 106 3.50 The aluminium crankcase................................................... 107 3.51 Camshaft drive............................................................ 110 4 Six-, eight- and twelve- cylinder engines........................................ 114 4.1 Six cylinders.............................................................. 114 4.2 Dynamic balance............................................................ 115 4.3 Firing order............................................................... 115 4.4 Eight cylinders............................................................ 115 4.5 Firing order............................................................... 116 4.6 Balanced webs and torsional oscillation.................................... 117 4.7 Difficulties met in design................................................. 118 4.8 Humber Super Snipe engine.................................................. 118 4.9 Jaguar AJ6 engine.......................................................... 122 4.10 Rover 2.3/2.6-litre E series engines...................................... 126 4.11 Ford V-six range.......................................................... 129 4.12 Mercedes M112 V6 engines.................................................. 130 4.13 The main castings of the Mercedes engine.................................. 133 4.14 Valves and combustion system.............................................. 135 4.15 Meeting future emissions regulations...................................... 136 4.16 Dual ignition and low fuel consumption.................................... 139 4.17 Inlet and exhaust manifolds............................................... 141 4.18 The ASSYST maintenance system............................................. 142 4.19 The V-eight............................................................... 142 4.20 Balance and firing intervals of V-eight................................... 143 4.21 Secondary balance with two-plane shaft.................................... 144 4.22 Construction of V-eight................................................... 144 4.23 A British V-eight engine.................................................. 145 4.24 Jaguar 5.3-litre V-twelve................................................. 148 4.25 Jaguar with May Fireball combustion chamber............................... 151 5 Sleeve- valve and special engines................................................ 154 5.1 Burt single-sleeve valve................................................... 154 5.2 Arrangement of ports....................................................... 155 5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sleeve valves.............................. 156 5.4 Rotary valve............................................................... 156 5.5 Cross rotary-valve engine.................................................. 157 5.6 Aspin engine............................................................... 158 5.7 NSU Wankel rotary engine................................................... 158 6 Diesel injection equipment and systems........................................... 163 6.1 Ignition by the temperature of compression................................. 163 6.2 Air blast injection........................................................ 164 6.3 Mechanical injection....................................................... 165 6.4 Power : weight ratio....................................................... 166 6.5 Injection and combustion processes......................................... 166 6.6 Three phases of combustion................................................. 166 6.7 Delay period............................................................... 167 6.8 Second phase............................................................... 167 6.9 Final phase of combustion.................................................. 168 6.10 Types of combustion chamber............................................... 168 6.11 Direct injection.......................................................... 168 6.12 Pre-combustion chamber.................................................... 169 6.13 Controlled air swirl...................................................... 170 6.14 Comet swirl chamber....................................................... 170 6.15 Suarer dual-turbulence system............................................. 170 6.16 Evolution of the Perkins range of diesel engines.......................... 171 6.17 The Phaser combustion chamber............................................. 171 6.18 Injection equipment....................................................... 175 6.19 Pintle type nozzle........................................................ 177 6.20 Pintaux nozzle............................................................ 178 6.21 Hole type nozzles......................................................... 178 6.22 Injector assemblies....................................................... 180 6.23 Injectors for small diesel engines and two-stage injection................ 180 6.24 Stanadyne Pencil injector................................................. 182 6.25 Injection control......................................................... 184 6.26 Bosch snubber valve....................................................... 185 6.27 Types of injection pump................................................... 185 6.28 The Lucas CAV injection pumps............................................. 186 6.29 Details of the Minimec pump............................................... 186 6.30 Minimec pumping elements.................................................. 189 6.31 Starting from cold........................................................ 190 6.32 Governors................................................................. 192 6.33 Injection advance......................................................... 194 6.34 General principles of engine speed control................................ 194 6.35 Types of governor......................................................... 195 6.36 Types of governor mechanism............................................... 195 6.37 Torque control............................................................ 196 6.38 The mechanical governor fitted to the Minimec pump........................ 197 6.39 Bosch mechanically governed in-line pump.................................. 201 6.40 Bosch electronic controls for injection pumps............................. 202 6.41 Unit injection............................................................ 204 6.42 Lucas electronic unit injection (EUI) system.............................. 206 6.43 Penske/Detroit Diesel electronic unit injection........................... 209 6.44 The Cummins PT system..................................................... 210 6.45 The GM unit injection system.............................................. 216 6.46 Common rail injection systems............................................. 218 6.47 The Bosch system.......................................................... 219 6.48 Components of the Bosch system............................................ 220 6.49 Injectors................................................................. 221 6.50 Diesel fuel filtration in general......................................... 225 6.51 Filtration and system layouts............................................. 226 7 Distributor type pumps........................................................... 229 7.1 Lucas DP series distributor type pumps..................................... 229 7.2 Lucas DPA type pump........................................................ 229 7.3 DPA pump governor.......................................................... 233 7.4 Lucas DPS pump............................................................. 234 7.5 DPS fuel supply and distribution system.................................... 236 7.6 Engine starting............................................................ 238 7.7 Control of maximum fuel delivery........................................... 239 7.8 The two speed governor..................................................... 241 7.9 Scroll plates.............................................................. 242 7.10 Boost control............................................................. 243 7.11 Automatic advance and retard unit......................................... 243 7.12 Lucas DPC pump............................................................ 245 7.13 Excess fuel............................................................... 248 7.14 Injection timing advance and retard....................................... 248 7.15 Low load advance, external control........................................ 252 7.16 DPC boost controller...................................................... 255 7.17 Electronic control of distributor pumps................................... 257 7.18 The Lucas EPIC electronically controlled pump............................. 258 7.19 The electronic control system............................................. 259 7.20 The Bosch systems......................................................... 261 7.21 Governing the VE pump..................................................... 265 7.22 Torque control for the VE type pump....................................... 267 7.23 Boost pressure and altitude compensation modules.......................... 269 7.24 Load dependent injection timing........................................... 270 7.25 Cold start advance and stopping the engine................................ 271 7.26 Bosch VP44 radial plunger type pump....................................... 273 7.27 The incremental pressure stages........................................... 275 7.28 Control over injection quantity per shot.................................. 276 7.29 Fuel delivery and distribution............................................ 277 7.30 Control over injection quantity and timing................................ 278 7.31 The angular encoder....................................................... 279 7.32 Stanadyne rotary distributor pumps........................................ 281 7.33 Stanadyne DS electronically controlled pump............................... 285 8 Some representative diesel engines............................................... 288 8.1 Perkins P3 diesel engine................................................... 288 8.2 Perkins Prima DI engine.................................................... 290 8.3 Gardner LW................................................................. 293 8.4 Cummins 10-litre diesel.................................................... 296 8.5 Relative merits of spark ignition and ci engines........................... 300 9 The two- stroke engine........................................................... 303 9.1 Three-port two-stroke engine............................................... 304 9.2 Reverse-flow scavenge DKW engine........................................... 306 9.3 Special constructions of two-stroke engine................................. 307 9.4 Separate phased pump....................................................... 307 9.5 Trojan engine.............................................................. 308 9.6 Kadenacy system............................................................ 310 9.7 Loop scavenge, Schnuerle system............................................ 312 9.8 Exhaust pulse charging..................................................... 312 9.9 Uniflow scavenging: opposed-piston engines................................. 312 9.10 Compression-ignition two-stroke engine.................................... 312 9.11 GM diesel with rotary blower and poppet exhaust valves.................... 313 9.12 Foden six-cylinder two-stroke ci engine................................... 313 9.13 Blower and scavenging..................................................... 317 9.14 Crankshaft balance and firing order....................................... 317 9.15 GM two-stroke diesel...................................................... 318 9.16 Opposed-piston engine..................................................... 320 9.17 Comparison of advantages.................................................. 323 10 Fundamentals of carburation..................................................... 326 10.1 The basic requirements.................................................... 327 10.2 Requirements for metering and mixing...................................... 327 10.3 Mixture quality........................................................... 328 10.4 Induction of the mixture.................................................. 329 10.5 Volumetric efficiency..................................................... 330 10.6 Throttling................................................................ 331 10.7 Fuel and air metering..................................................... 333 10.8 Volume and mass flow...................................................... 334 10.9 Fixed- and variable-choke carburettors.................................... 335 10.10 The fixed-choke type..................................................... 335 10.11 Fuel : air ratio compensation for fixed-choke carburettors............... 337 10.12 Compensation by compound and submerged jets.............................. 338 10.13 Air bleed compensation................................................... 340 10.14 Multiple venturis intensify air bleed compensation....................... 342 10.15 The Zenith V-type emulsion block......................................... 343 10.16 Secondary suction effects................................................ 343 10.17 Mixture requirements in more detail...................................... 343 10.18 Principle of the intermediate chamber.................................... 345 10.19 Starting and idling enrichment devices................................... 346 10.20 Separate starting and warm-up enrichment devices......................... 347 10.21 Zenith VE starter carburettor............................................ 348 10.22 Thermostatic control for starting and warm-up............................ 349 10.23 Solex progressive starter................................................ 350 10.24 Idling systems and progression jets...................................... 352 10.25 Requirements for acceleration............................................ 353 10.26 Provision for acceleration............................................... 353 10.27 Mechanically actuated acceleration pumps................................. 354 10.28 Depression actuated acceleration pumps................................... 355 10.29 Enrichment for maximum power............................................. 356 10.30 Static power enrichment.................................................. 357 10.31 Economiser devices....................................................... 361 11 Some representative carburettors................................................ 362 11.1 Venturi diameter.......................................................... 362 11.2 Zenith W type carburettors................................................ 363 11.3 Zenith IZ Carburettors.................................................... 365 11.4 Zenith IV carburettors.................................................... 367 11.5 Adaptation for emission control........................................... 368 11.6 Multi-barrel carburettors................................................. 370 11.7 A three-stage throttle mechanism.......................................... 372 11.8 Solex MIMAT carburettor................................................... 373 11.9 An electronically controlled four-barrel carburettor...................... 380 11.10 Constant-depression carburettors......................................... 389 11.11 SU constant-depression carburettor....................................... 391 11.12 SU carburettor type HIF.................................................. 392 11.13 Zenith-Stromberg CD and CDS carburettors................................. 394 11.14 Zenith-Stromberg CDSE emission carburettor............................... 395 11.15 Zenith-Stromberg CD4 and CD5 carburettors................................ 396 11.16 Mixture ratio curves..................................................... 398 11.17 Automatic governor....................................................... 399 12 Petrol injection systems........................................................ 401 12.1 Basic considerations...................................................... 402 12.2 Injection system types and layouts........................................ 403 12.3 Injection strategies...................................................... 404 12.4 Injector design........................................................... 405 12.5 Some other injectors...................................................... 408 12.6 Start valves.............................................................. 410 12.7 Air-flow metering......................................................... 410 12.8 Suspended-plate-type flow sensor.......................................... 411 12.9 Swinging-gate-type air flow sensor........................................ 413 12.10 Mass-flow sensors........................................................ 414 12.11 Lambda sensor............................................................ 415 12.12 Bosch K-Jetronic system.................................................. 418 12.13 The fuel distributor..................................................... 420 12.14 Bosch KE-Jetronic system................................................. 421 12.15 Bosch L-Jetronic system.................................................. 423 12.16 Bosch LH-Jetronic system................................................. 426 12.17 Bosch Motronic system.................................................... 427 12.18 The electronic ignition control.......................................... 427 12.19 Fuel supply.............................................................. 429 12.20 Overall principle of operation........................................... 430 12.21 Other variables.......................................................... 431 12.22 The Weber electronic control system...................................... 435 12.23 Bosch Mono-Jetronic system............................................... 435 12.24 The GM Multec single-point system........................................ 437 12.25 The Multec multi-point system............................................ 439 12.26 Rover throttle body injection and ignition control....................... 440 12.27 Ignition control......................................................... 443 12.28 The air-intake system.................................................... 444 12.29 Throttle body assembly................................................... 446 12.30 Stepper motor operation.................................................. 446 12.31 Fuel metering............................................................ 447 12.32 The Mechadyne Pijet 90 system............................................ 448 12.33 Principle of operation................................................... 449 12.34 Idling and the electronic control unit................................... 452 12.35 Comment.................................................................. 453 13 Induction manifold design....................................................... 456 13.1 Mixture distribution and manifold pressure................................ 457 13.2 Mixture transport problems................................................ 459 13.3 Manifold heating.......................................................... 460 13.4 Materials................................................................. 463 13.5 Manifold tuning........................................................... 464 13.6 Valve timing and inter-cylinder charge robbery............................ 464 13.7 Crankshaft and cylinder layout in relation to valve timing................ 465 13.8 Three-cylinder engines.................................................... 466 13.9 Four-cylinder in-line engines............................................. 466 13.10 Six and eight cylinders in-line.......................................... 469 13.11 V-layouts................................................................ 470 13.12 Pipe tuning - the inertia wave........................................... 473 13.13 Tuning the pipe to optimise the inertia wave effect...................... 474 13.14 Resonant, or standing, waves............................................. 475 13.15 Pipe end-effects......................................................... 478 13.16 Frequencies, wavelengths and lengths of pipes............................ 478 13.17 Tuning the pipe to optimise standing-wave effects........................ 481 13.18 Harmonics of standing waves.............................................. 481 13.19 Some practical applications of pipe tuning............................... 482 13.20 The Helmholtz resonator.................................................. 485 13.21 Helmholtz resonators in automotive practice.............................. 488 13.22 Alternative Helmholtz arrangements....................................... 489 13.23 Examples of the application of the Helmholtz principle................... 489 13.24 Application to Vengines.................................................. 490 13.25 The Helmholtz resonator in combination with tuned pipes.................. 492 14 Emission control................................................................ 493 14.1 Early measures for controlling emissions.................................. 494 14.2 Evolution of the US Federal test procedures............................... 495 14.3 Catalytic conversion...................................................... 497 14.4 Two-way catalytic conversion.............................................. 497 14.5 The converter............................................................. 498 14.6 Catalyst support.......................................................... 498 14.7 Metallic monoliths for catalytic converters............................... 499 14.8 Ford EGI system for preheating catalysts.................................. 501 14.9 Three-way conversion...................................................... 502 14.10 The electronic control system............................................ 503 14.11 Warm-air intake systems.................................................. 503 14.12 Evaporative emissions.................................................... 504 14.13 Crankcase emission control............................................... 505 14.14 Air injection and gulp valve............................................. 506 14.15 Air management valves.................................................... 507 14.16 Some more complex valve arrangements..................................... 508 14.17 Vapour collection and canister purge systems............................. 510 14.18 Diesel engine emissions.................................................. 515 14.19 Reduction of emissions: conflicting requirements......................... 515 14.20 Oxides of nitrogen, NOx.................................................. 516 14.21 Unburnt hydrocarbons..................................................... 519 14.22 Carbon monoxide.......................................................... 520 14.23 Particulates............................................................. 520 14.24 Particle traps........................................................... 522 14.25 Influence of fuel quality on diesel exhaust emissions.................... 524 14.26 Black smoke.............................................................. 524 14.27 White smoke.............................................................. 525 15 Fuel pumps and engine intake air conditioning................................... 526 15.1 Roller-cell positive displacement type pump............................... 526 15.2 Mechanical diaphragm type pump............................................ 527 15.3 SU pump................................................................... 529 15.4 Rotary electric fuel pumps................................................ 530 15.5 Air filters and silencers................................................. 531 16 Turbocharging and supercharging................................................. 533 16.1 Pressure charging the spark ignition engine............................... 533 16.2 Carburetted engines....................................................... 534 16.3 The diesel engine......................................................... 535 16.4 The two-stroke engine..................................................... 535 16.5 Turbocharging in general.................................................. 536 16.6 Automotive turbocharger construction...................................... 536 16.7 Operating range and characteristics....................................... 537 16.8 Compressor surge and stall................................................ 540 16.9 Axial or radial flow?..................................................... 541 16.10 The two methods of turbocharging......................................... 541 16.11 Constant-pressure turbocharging.......................................... 541 16.12 Pulse turbocharging...................................................... 542 16.13 Exhaust manifold layouts for turbocharging............................... 542 16.14 Pulse converters......................................................... 545 16.15 Matching the turbocharger to the engine.................................. 546 16.16 Extending turbocharger speed range....................................... 548 16.17 Variable geometry........................................................ 549 16.18 By-passing the gas flow.................................................. 552 16.19 Cooling the charge....................................................... 553 16.20 The heat exchanger....................................................... 554 16.21 Supercharging............................................................ 555 16.22 Two main categories of supercharger...................................... 558 16.23 Vane type with tip clearance............................................. 560 16.24 Advantages of blowing.................................................... 560 16.25 Screw-type compressors................................................... 561 16.26 Other methods of supercharging........................................... 563 16.27 The pressure-wave supercharger........................................... 565 17 Fuels and their combustion...................................................... 567 17.1 Distillation and blending................................................. 569 17.2 The principal refining processes.......................................... 571 17.3 Properties required for petrol............................................ 572 17.4 Fuel-performance requirements............................................. 573 17.5 Octane number and anti-knock index........................................ 574 17.6 Boiling point, vapour lock and ice formation in induction systems......... 574 17.7 Composition of fuel for spark ignition engines............................ 575 17.8 Additives................................................................. 576 17.9 Lead compounds............................................................ 577 17.10 Lead-free fuels.......................................................... 577 17.11 Detergent additives...................................................... 578 17.12 Corrosion inhibitors..................................................... 578 17.13 Spark-aider additives.................................................... 579 17.14 Diesel fuels............................................................. 579 17.15 Properties required for diesel fuel...................................... 580 17.16 Cetane number, cetane index and diesel index............................. 581 17.17 Tendency to deposit wax.................................................. 583 17.18 Density.................................................................. 583 17.19 Volatility............................................................... 584 17.20 Viscosity................................................................ 584 17.21 Smoke.................................................................... 584 17.22 Particulates............................................................. 586 17.23 Additives................................................................ 586 17.24 The effects of additives on combustion and performance................... 587 17.25 Cetane number and cetane improvers....................................... 588 17.26 Cold weather problems.................................................... 589 17.27 Cold weather additives................................................... 589 17.28 Dispersants and corrosion inhibitors..................................... 590 17.29 Detergents and anti-corrosion additives.................................. 590 17.30 Anti-foamants and re-odorants............................................ 592 17.31 Diesel combustion........................................................ 593 17.32 Ignition delay........................................................... 593 18 Friction, lubricants and lubrication............................................ 596 18.1 Dry friction.............................................................. 596 18.2 Boundary friction......................................................... 596 18.3 Viscous friction.......................................................... 597 18.4 Measurement of viscosity.................................................. 598 18.5 Change of viscosity with temperature - viscosity index.................... 598 18.6 Types of oil.............................................................. 600 18.7 Synthetic lubricants...................................................... 600 18.8 Semi-synthetic lubricants................................................. 602 18.9 The wear process and lubrication.......................................... 602 18.10 Corrosive wear........................................................... 603 18.11 The lubricant as a coolant............................................... 604 18.12 Oil additives............................................................ 604 18.13 Lubrication systems...................................................... 608 18.14 Pressure lubrication..................................................... 609 18.15 Dry sump lubrication..................................................... 611 18.16 Lubrication of bearings carrying shafts.................................. 611 18.17 Hydrodynamic lubrication................................................. 611 18.18 Gear-type oil pump....................................................... 612 18.19 Eccentric-rotor pump..................................................... 613 18.20 Oil filters.............................................................. 614 18.21 Oil circulation and pressure indicators.................................. 615 18.22 Oil level indication..................................................... 617 19 Engine cooling.................................................................. 618 19.1 Temperature control....................................................... 621 19.2 Wax-element thermostats................................................... 622 19.3 Pressurised cooling system................................................ 623 19.4 Twin thermostats.......................................................... 624 19.5 Renault R4-L sealed coolant system........................................ 625 19.6 Directed cooling.......................................................... 625 19.7 Radiator construction..................................................... 626 19.8 Horizontal disposition of copper tubes.................................... 629 19.9 Fan drives................................................................ 629 20 Electric propulsion............................................................. 632 20.1 Batteries................................................................. 632 20.2 The battery electric vehicles............................................. 633 20.3 Fuel cells................................................................ 634 20.4 The fuel cell: basic principles........................................... 635 20.5 Low pressure hydrogen storage on the vehicle.............................. 636 20.6 Fuel cells in buses, US and Canada........................................ 637 20.7 Zevco fuel cell for cars, Europe.......................................... 639 20.8 Cryogenic storage of hydrogen, Renault.................................... 640 20.9 Hydrogen from methanol or DME............................................. 640 20.10 Hybrid power............................................................. 642 20.11 Toyota Prius hybrid car.................................................. 644 21 Alternative power units......................................................... 646 21.1 The gas turbine........................................................... 646 21.2 Essential processes in ic power units..................................... 648 21.3 Essential components in turbine unit...................................... 648 21.4 Gas turbines for road transport........................................... 649 21.5 Essential characteristics of turbine prime movers......................... 649 21.6 Automotive power unit..................................................... 650 21.7 Fuel consumption.......................................................... 651 21.8 Heat exchangers........................................................... 651 21.9 Turbine developments...................................................... 652 21.10 Ford power unit.......................................................... 653 21.11 Chrysler turbine car..................................................... 654 21.12 Leyland gas turbine...................................................... 656 21.13 Gas turbine prospects.................................................... 657 21.14 Stratified-charge engines................................................ 657 21.15 Single-chamber versions.................................................. 658 21.16 Dual-chamber versions.................................................... 660 21.17 The Merritt engine....................................................... 663 21.18 How NOx emission is avoided.............................................. 663 21.19 Results obtained on the test bed......................................... 665 21.20 The fully developed ignition system...................................... 666 21.21 The outlook.............................................................. 667 21.22 Stirling engine.......................................................... 668 22 Bearings, gearing, chain and belt drives........................................ 675 22.1 Types of toothed gearing.................................................. 677 22.2 Gear ratio of toothed gearing............................................. 681 22.3 Chain drive............................................................... 681 22.4 Belt drives............................................................... 682 Part 2 Transmission.................................................................... 684 23 Transmission requirements....................................................... 685 23.1 Clutch, gearbox and live axle transmission - general arrangement.......... 687 23.2 Layout of rear-engine vehicles with live axles............................ 689 23.3 Dead-axle and axleless transmission arrangements.......................... 690 23.4 Four-wheel-drive transmission............................................. 694 24 Clutches........................................................................ 696 24.1 Basic principle of the friction-type clutch............................... 696 24.2 Torque transmitted........................................................ 697 24.3 Cone clutch............................................................... 698 24.4 Torque capacity of a cone clutch.......................................... 699 24.5 Clutch linings............................................................ 700 24.6 Friction materials........................................................ 700 24.7 Bonding agents for fibres................................................. 701 24.8 Single-plate clutch....................................................... 702 24.9 Torque transmitted........................................................ 703 24.10 Multi-spring single-plate clutch......................................... 704 24.11 The diaphragm-spring clutch.............................................. 706 24.12 Pull-type diaphragm-spring clutch........................................ 710 24.13 Belleville direct-release clutch......................................... 710 24.14 Driven plate............................................................. 712 24.15 Multiple-plate clutch.................................................... 713 24.16 Dry multiple-plate clutch................................................ 714 24.17 Clutch release gear...................................................... 714 24.18 Clutch brakes or stops................................................... 715 24.19 Automatic clutch action.................................................. 715 24.20 Centrifugal clutches..................................................... 715 24.21 Eddy current couplings................................................... 717 24.22 The Ferlec electro-magnetic clutch....................................... 718 24.23 Fluid flywheel........................................................... 719 24.24 Prevention of leakage.................................................... 721 24.25 Characteristic of the fluid flywheel..................................... 721 24.26 ÎOpen circuitÌ fluid coupling............................................ 722 24.27 Fluid-friction clutch.................................................... 723 24.28 Connection between the clutch and gearbox................................ 724 25 Why is a gearbox necessary?..................................................... 726 25.1 Aerodynamic forces........................................................ 726 25.2 Gradient resistance....................................................... 727 25.3 Rolling resistance........................................................ 727 25.4 Total resistance.......................................................... 728 25.5 Tractive effort........................................................... 728 25.6 Variation of the tractive effort with speed............................... 730 25.7 Performance curves........................................................ 731 25.8 Clutch action............................................................. 732 25.9 Constant power TE speed curve............................................. 733 25.10 Performance curves on a horsepower basis................................. 733 26 Constructional arrangements of gearboxes........................................ 736 26.1 Sliding-mesh gearbox...................................................... 736 26.2 First or low gear......................................................... 738 26.3 Second gear............................................................... 739 26.4 Third gear................................................................ 739 26.5 Fourth or top gear........................................................ 739 26.6 Reverse gear.............................................................. 739 26.7 Control mechanism......................................................... 741 26.8 Sliding-type selector mechanism........................................... 741 26.9 Ball-type selector mechanism.............................................. 741 26.10 Steering column gear shift control....................................... 744 26.11 Constant-mesh gearbox.................................................... 745 26.12 A five-speed gearbox..................................................... 746 26.13 Another example of a constant-mesh gearbox............................... 748 26.14 BL cars overdrive, five-ratio gearbox.................................... 749 26.15 Synchromesh devices...................................................... 751 26.16 Baulk type of synchromesh................................................ 753 26.17 Baulk-ring synchromesh................................................... 754 26.18 Multi- and double-cone synchronisers..................................... 755 26.19 Porsche synchromesh...................................................... 756 26.20 Lubrication of the gearbox............................................... 757 26.21 Freewheel devices........................................................ 758 26.22 Auxiliary gearboxes and overdrives....................................... 759 26.23 A Leyland ten-ratio gearbox.............................................. 760 26.24 The Fuller twin-countershaft gearbox..................................... 761 26.25 An all-indirect gearbox.................................................. 763 26.26 Multi-speed splitter gearbox............................................. 763 26.27 Operation................................................................ 764 26.28 Clutchless changes....................................................... 764 26.29 An upshift brake......................................................... 766 26.30 Additional features...................................................... 767 27 Epicyclic and pre- selector gearboxes........................................... 768 27.1 A simple epicyclic gear train............................................. 769 27.2 An alternative epicyclic gear train....................................... 770 27.3 Epicyclic gear ratios..................................................... 771 27.4 Simple planetary epicyclic gearing........................................ 772 27.5 Simple planet epicyclic gearing in general................................ 773 27.6 Compound planet epicyclic gearing......................................... 773 27.7 Numbers of teeth.......................................................... 774 27.8 Another way of applying epicyclic gearing................................. 775 27.9 Epicyclic gearboxes....................................................... 775 27.10 Basic principle of the Wilson gearbox.................................... 776 27.11 The auxiliary trains in the Wilson gearbox............................... 778 27.12 The clutches and brakes in the Wilson gearbox............................ 779 27.13 Automatic compensation for wear.......................................... 780 28 Torque converters and automatic gearboxes....................................... 782 28.1 Torque converter with direct drive........................................ 785 28.2 Turbo-Transmitters converter.............................................. 786 28.3 Other arrangements of torque converters................................... 787 28.4 Chevrolet Turboglide transmission......................................... 789 28.5 Torque converter performance.............................................. 790 28.6 Automatic transmission in general......................................... 792 28.7 Borg-Warner Models 35, 65 and 66 transmissions............................ 793 28.8 Alfa Romeo Q-System....................................................... 794 28.9 Porsche automatic transmission for sports cars............................ 795 28.10 Porsche Tiptronic electronic control system.............................. 796 28.11 Borg-Warner Models 45 and 55 transmissions............................... 799 28.12 Hydramatic transmissions................................................. 802 28.13 Hydramatic Strato-flight gearbox controls................................ 806 28.14 Automatic transmissions for commercial vehicles.......................... 812 28.15 Voith Diwamatic transmission............................................. 813 28.16 ZF HP500 fully automatic transmission.................................... 814 29 Semi- automatic gearboxes and continuously variable transmissions............... 817 29.1 AP semi-automatic gearbox................................................. 817 29.2 AP hot-shift automatic gearbox............................................ 820 29.3 Ricardo ALT automatic transmission........................................ 822 29.4 Alfa Romeo Selespeed transmission......................................... 824 29.5 Van Doorne Variomatic and Transmatic transmissions........................ 827 29.6 Van Doorne Transmissive BV steel CVT...................................... 831 29.7 The Maxwell automatic transmission........................................ 832 29.8 Leyland continuously variable transmission................................ 833 30 Universal joints and driving steered wheels..................................... 840 30.1 Constructional forms of universal joints.................................. 840 30.2 Flexible-ring joints...................................................... 842 30.3 Rubber-bushed flexible joints............................................. 843 30.4 Constant-velocity joints.................................................. 844 30.5 Driving and braking of steered wheels..................................... 847 31 The differential................................................................ 852 31.1 Another arrangement of the bevel final drive.............................. 854 31.2 Spur, or planetary type, differential..................................... 854 31.3 Traction control differentials............................................ 855 31.4 Vehicle design implications of traction control........................... 857 31.5 Multi-plate clutch-type traction control device........................... 858 31.6 Some other clutch types................................................... 859 31.7 Gear type traction control devices........................................ 860 31.8 ZF limited slip differential.............................................. 862 31.9 Multi-plate clutch type................................................... 863 31.10 The traction control by viscous coupling................................. 865 32 The back axle................................................................... 868 32.1 Live back axles........................................................... 868 32.2 The final drive........................................................... 868 32.3 Single-reduction live axles............................................... 869 32.4 Torque reaction........................................................... 870 32.5 Driving thrust............................................................ 870 32.6 Torque and thrust member arrangements..................................... 870 32.7 Springs serving also as torque and thrust members......................... 871 32.8 Hotchkiss drive with torque reaction member............................... 872 32.9 Single combined torque-thrust reaction member, with....................... 873 springs taking only vertical and lateral loads................................. 873 32.10 Transverse radius rods................................................... 874 32.11 Three radius rods........................................................ 874 33 Axle constructions.............................................................. 876 33.1 Effects of wheel-bearing layout on axle loading........................... 878 33.2 Some actual bearing arrangements.......................................... 879 33.3 Axle casing constructions................................................. 881 34 The double- reduction axle...................................................... 883 34.1 Both steps at the centre of the axle...................................... 883 34.2 Kirkstall double-reduction axle........................................... 885 34.3 One step at centre of axle, the other at road wheels...................... 887 34.4 A bevel-gear hub reduction................................................ 888 Part 3 The Carriage Unit............................................................... 889 35 The basic structure............................................................. 890 35.1 The frame................................................................. 890 35.2 Sub-frames................................................................ 895 35.3 Integral and chassisless construction..................................... 897 36 Vehicle safety.................................................................. 899 36.1 Crash testing............................................................. 900 36.2 Protection of occupants................................................... 906 36.3 Testing for occupant safety............................................... 907 36.4 Protection of pedestrians from serious injury............................. 909 36.5 Active safety............................................................. 910 36.6 Structural safety and air bags............................................ 912 36.7 Passenger compartment integrity........................................... 914 36.8 The problem of the small car.............................................. 916 36.9 Side impacts.............................................................. 918 36.10 Smart air bags........................................................... 918 36.11 Seat belts............................................................... 919 36.12 Improvement of active safety............................................. 921 36.13 Tyres, suspension and steering........................................... 922 36.14 Electronic control systems in general.................................... 923 36.15 Electric power assisted steering......................................... 923 36.16 Brakes................................................................... 924 36.17 Automatic braking and traction control................................... 924 36.18 Recently introduced advanced systems..................................... 925 36.19 Suspension control....................................................... 925 36.20 Ergonomic considerations and safety...................................... 926 36.21 Seating.................................................................. 927 36.22 The pedal controls....................................................... 929 37 Brakes.......................................................................... 931 37.1 Two functions of brakes................................................... 933 37.2 Braking systems........................................................... 933 37.3 Methods of actuating the brakes........................................... 934 37.4 Types of brake............................................................ 934 37.5 Elementary theory of the shoe brake....................................... 937 37.6 Brake shoe adjustments.................................................... 939 37.7 A modern rear-wheel brake................................................. 940 37.8 Disc brakes............................................................... 944 37.9 Self-energising disc brakes............................................... 948 37.10 Brake linkages........................................................... 949 37.11 Leverage and adjustment of the brake linkage............................. 951 37.12 Hydraulic systems........................................................ 952 37.13 Operating cylinders...................................................... 953 37.14 Divided and dual brake systems........................................... 954 38 Servo- and power- operated, and regenerative braking systems.................... 958 38.1 Vacuum brake operation.................................................... 959 38.2 Clayton Dewandre master servo unit........................................ 959 38.3 Reservoirs................................................................ 961 38.4 Bendix Hydrovac........................................................... 962 38.5 Direct-acting vacuum servos............................................... 962 38.6 Power-operated brakes..................................................... 963 38.7 A dual power brake system................................................. 965 38.8 Compressed air systems.................................................... 967 38.9 Actuating cylinders for air brakes........................................ 970 38.10 Spring brake units and locks............................................. 970 38.11 Brake limiting device and anti-slide systems............................. 972 38.12 The load-conscious valve................................................. 974 38.13 Apportioning valves for front-wheel sensed anti-lock systems............. 975 38.14 Apportioning valves for heavy commercial vehicles........................ 978 38.15 Mercedes-Benz 4MATIC traction control for 4-wheel drive.................. 980 38.16 Mercedes-Benz Brake Assist (BA).......................................... 983 38.17 Stability when steering and braking or accelerating (ESP)................ 985 38.18 Regenerative braking systems............................................. 986 39 Anti- lock brakes and traction control.......................................... 990 39.1 Dunlop-Maxaret system..................................................... 991 39.2 Lucas-Girling WSP system.................................................. 992 39.3 Ford Escort and Orion anti-lock systems................................... 993 39.4 Ford Granada, Sierra and Scorpio anti-lock systems........................ 995 39.5 Traction control.......................................................... 998 39.6 Teves Mk IV ABS and traction control......................................1000 39.7 Advanced anti-lock braking systems........................................1002 39.8 Braking force coefficient and slip factor.................................1003 39.9 Bosch anti-lock (ABS) systems.............................................1004 39.10 How the system functions.................................................1006 39.11 The reference speeds.....................................................1007 39.12 Wheels on one side on ice and on the other on tarmac.....................1009 39.13 ABS for cars with 4-wheel drive..........................................1010 39.14 Traction control in general..............................................1011 39.15 Bosch ASR2-DKB traction control system...................................1012 39.16 Bosch ASR2-DKZ/MSR system................................................1013 39.17 Lucas-Girling Skidchek GX................................................1014 40 Front axle and steering mechanism...............................................1018 40.1 Ackerman linkage..........................................................1019 40.2 Multi-wheel vehicles......................................................1020 40.3 Steering linkages for independent suspension..............................1021 40.4 Centre-point steering.....................................................1022 40.5 Castoring or trailing action..............................................1024 40.6 Cornering power...........................................................1025 40.7 Limiting grip on road while braking and steering..........................1025 40.8 Self-righting torque......................................................1026 40.9 Steering characteristics - oversteer and understeer.......................1026 40.10 Rear wheel steering......................................................1027 40.11 The underlying principles................................................1028 40.12 The Nissan Super HICAS system............................................1030 40.13 Components of the HICAS system...........................................1033 40.14 Axle beam................................................................1035 40.15 Stub-axle construction...................................................1036 40.16 Wheel bearings...........................................................1037 40.17 Steering column..........................................................1040 40.18 Reversible and irreversible steering.....................................1040 40.19 Rack-and-pinion steering mechanism.......................................1041 40.20 Screw-and-nut mechanism..................................................1041 40.21 Cam steering mechanisms..................................................1043 40.22 Screw-and-lever mechanism................................................1043 40.23 Steering connections.....................................................1044 40.24 Alignment of the front wheels............................................1045 40.25 Effect of toe-in on steering.............................................1045 40.26 Power assisted steering, basic principles................................1046 40.27 Vickers system...........................................................1047 40.28 Ross system..............................................................1048 40.29 Marles-Bendix Varamatic system...........................................1050 40.30 Electrically powered systems.............................................1052 40.31 TRW systems..............................................................1052 40.32 TRW rack drive system....................................................1053 40.33 The column and pinion drive variants.....................................1054 40.34 ZF Servolectric system...................................................1056 40.35 Honda EPS and VGR systems................................................1058 41 Wheels and tyres................................................................1060 41.1 Wheel and tyre assemblies.................................................1063 41.2 Wheels....................................................................1063 41.3 Rims......................................................................1065 41.4 Wheel fixing..............................................................1070 41.5 Light alloy wheels........................................................1071 41.6 Tyres.....................................................................1071 41.7 Tyre construction.........................................................1073 41.8 Tread design..............................................................1075 41.9 Off-road vehicle tyres....................................................1076 41.10 Noise....................................................................1076 41.11 Aspect ratio and tyre markings...........................................1076 41.12 Tyre design considerations...............................................1078 41.13 Run-flat tyres...........................................................1079 41.14 Materials................................................................1080 41.15 Manufacture..............................................................1081 41.16 Retreading worn tyres....................................................1082 42 Suspension principles...........................................................1084 42.1 Road irregularities and human susceptibility..............................1084 42.2 Suspension system.........................................................1085 42.3 Damping...................................................................1087 42.4 Dampers in practice.......................................................1088 42.5 Double-tube damper........................................................1089 42.6 Single-tube damper........................................................1090 42.7 Lever-arm-type damper.....................................................1091 42.8 Springs...................................................................1091 42.9 Types of leaf spring......................................................1092 42.10 Laminated spring details.................................................1093 42.11 Taper-leaf springs.......................................................1096 42.12 Steering effects of leaf springs.........................................1098 42.13 Coil and torsion springs.................................................1100 42.14 Variable-rate springs....................................................1100 42.15 Composite leaf springs...................................................1101 42.16 Rubber springs...........................................................1102 42.17 Air springs..............................................................1106 42.18 Adjustable and self-adjusting suspensions................................1107 42.19 Interconnected suspension systems........................................1110 42.20 Interconnected air and liquid suspensions................................1111 42.21 BL Hydrolastic suspenion systems.........................................1112 42.22 Moulton Hydragas suspension..............................................1113 42.23 Austin Mini Metro Suspension.............................................1115 42.24 Chassis lubrication......................................................1116 42.25 Some autolubrication systems.............................................1117 43 Suspension systems..............................................................1119 43.1 Camber angle..............................................................1120 43.2 Roll centre...............................................................1120 43.3 Double transverse-link suspension.........................................1123 43.4 MacPherson strut type.....................................................1127 43.5 Single transverse link....................................................1128 43.6 Single leading or trailing link...........................................1129 43.7 Double leading or trailing link...........................................1130 43.8 Broulhiet suspension......................................................1131 43.9 Girling suspension........................................................1131 43.10 Dubonnet suspension......................................................1132 43.11 Slider, or pillar, type..................................................1133 43.12 Rover 2000 front suspension..............................................1134 43.13 Driven-wheel suspension..................................................1135 43.14 Rear suspension - live axle..............................................1135 43.15 Torque reaction and axle guidance........................................1136 43.16 WattÌs linkage...........................................................1137 43.17 Rear suspension - dead axles.............................................1137 43.18 Rear suspension - independent............................................1139 43.19 Single link with angled pivot axis.......................................1140 43.20 Influence of angle of pivot axis on camber and toe-in....................1143 43.21 Vehicle handling considerations..........................................1143 43.22 MacPherson strut rear suspension.........................................1144 43.23 Active suspension........................................................1145 43.24 Suspension control systems...............................................1147 44 Six- wheel vehicles.............................................................1152 44.1 The rigid six-wheeler.....................................................1153 44.2 Suspensions for rigid six-wheelers........................................1153 44.3 Transmissions of six-wheelers.............................................1155 44.4 A Scammell design.........................................................1157 44.5 Torque reaction in rigid six-wheelers.....................................1158 44.6 Spring stresses in rigid six-wheelers.....................................1161 44.7 Scammell articulated trailer..............................................1162 44.8 Scammell Routeman.........................................................1163 Index..................................................................................1165
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